Table 7 Summarizing the antimicrobial activity including antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral of synthesized TiO₂-NPs

Antibacterial

Terminalia chebula

56 nm

tetragonal

Decreased biofilm of St. mutans

[219]

Rosa davurica

146 ± 3 nm

irregular

Bacterial biofilm inhibition of S. aureus and B. cereus

[220]

Cynodon dactylon

< 100 nm

firmly agglomerated

Antibacterial effect against A. baumannii and St. aureus

[221]

H. thelbiecea

Ananos seneglensis

40 nm

50 nm

spherical

crystalline

Bacterial cell membrane damage

[222]

Azadirachta indica Ficus benghalensis Syzygium aromaticum

10–33 nm

tetragonal

crystalline

Bactericidal effect against Streptococcus mutans and Citrobacter freundii

[223]

Ocimum americanum L. leaf

25 nm

spherical

Bactericidal action against Clostridium perfringens, S. paratyphi and K. pneumoniae

[224]

Pleurotus djamor

31 nm

spherical

Antibacterial effect against Pseudomonas fluorescens  and C. diphtheriae

[144]

Commercial

< 50 nm

NA

Inhibited MRSA biofilm formation

[213]

microemulsion

9 nm

anatase structure

Bactericidal effect on Pseudomonas aeruginosa

[214]

Electrochemical

(sacrificial anode)

TiO₂ anatase (15.6 nm)

Ag-TiO₂ (15.6 nm)

spherical

Enhanced antifungal and antibacterial activities

[216]

sol-gel method

10–15 nm

spherical

Used in food packaging to prevent spoilage & decreased bacterial growth

[217]

Antifungal

Curcuma longa

92.6 nm

anatase

Increased resistance to damping off fungal disease by F. graminearum

[225]

Commercial

70–130 nm

Anatase crystal

C. albicans was inhibited by 65%

[226]

Ball milling method

108–130 nm

irregular

hyphal lysis of Macrophomina phaseolina

[227]

Bacopa monnieri

< 100 nm

homogeneous surface morphology

Enhanced antifungal and antibiofilm activity against C.albicans and P.chrysogenum compared to PVA alone

[228]

chemical

26 nm

spherical

Reduction of Candidal adhesion and biofilm formation

[229]

Commercial

6 nm

NA

Biocidal against Aspergillus niger on Paulownia wood

[230]

Commercial

50 nm

thin homogeneous layer

Antifungal against wood-decaying fungi (Mucor circinelloides and Hypocrea lixii)

[231]

Pogostemon cablin

71.82 nm

NA

Antifungal effect at low MFCs

[232]

Caricaceae (Papaya) shell extracts

15 nm

Semispherical

Antifungal activity against S. Sclerotiorums with improved seed germination

[233]

African oil palm

14.60 ± 0.44 nm

agglomerated hemispherical

Fusarium solani growth inhibition

[234]

Trichoderma harzianum

431 ± 87

spherical

High chitinase activity against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

[139]

Trianthema portulacastrum

Chenopodium quinoa

30–60 nm

Granule-like shapes

Fungicidal effect against Ustilago tritici

[83]

ultrasonic

NA

Spherical with aggregation

Inhibited spores’ germination of F. graminearum

[235]

Caesalpinia pulcherrima

flower extract

20–27 nm

spherical

Superior anticandidal activity at low MICs

[236]

Antiviral

Sonochemical method

8 nm

tetragonal

Antiviral treatment of Newcastle disease virus (NDV)

[237]

Chemical hydrolysis

4–10

NA

Viral treatment against H3N2 Influenza virus

[238]

Solid state reaction method

1 m²/g

irregular

Antiviral filtration against H1N1 (face masks)

[239]

chemical impregnation method

NA

amorphous

Antiviral properties against H1N1 and SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)

[240]

sol-gel method

50–100 nm

tubular

Potent anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity

[241]

electrochemical anodization technique

10 nm

tubular

Electrochemical sensor for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2

[242]

Commercial

50 nm

spherical

Antiviral activity against Human Papillomavirus HPV

[243]

Chemical adsorption method

1–100 nm

Anatase

Anti SARS-coV-2

[244]

Sol gel method

20 nm

hemispherical

Antiviral Activity Against Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in Pepper plants

[245]

Hydrolysis chemical method

5–6 nm

anatase

Increased silkworm to Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV)

[246]