Table 1 Comparative analysis of microalgae cultivation systems: features, advantages, and limitations

Open Ponds

Shallow tracks, natural light

Low cost, easy to design/build/operate

Susceptible to contamination, weather effects, limited control over environmental conditions

[33]

Tubular PBRs

Various configurations (vertical, horizontal, helical), transparent materials

Maximizes light exposure, efficient gas exchange, versatile design

Potential for photobleaching, high energy consumption for certain configurations

[42, 48]

Flat-Panel PBRs

Minimal thickness, high surface area to volume ratio

High photosynthetic efficiency, adaptable to indoor and outdoor setups

Complexity in scaling up, temperature modulation challenges

[52, 53]

Stirred Tank PBRs

Glass/stainless steel, internal/external illumination, mechanical agitation

Operational flexibility, uniform nutrient distribution

Light penetration challenges in larger volumes, energy demands for lighting and agitation, potential for cellular damage

[5, 42, 57]